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Archive for June, 2009

Chattering chimpanzees

Quentin de la Bedoyere on 26 Jun 2009

The difference between man and chimpanzee in genetic terms  is, as we know, very small - about 1.5 per cent. Yet the different outcome between the two species, which share a common ancestor, is very large. Investigating why is extremely interesting. It is also complex, but evolutionary biologists appear to have opened a promising door on to a lengthy passage of exploration. You will forgive me, I trust, for ruthless simplification; we are not a science journal. And I am not here writing of the infusion of the soul, but rather the biological changes which made our species fit for the integration of the soul.

The story starts with the identification of DNA sequences which have changed most since our lines diverged. The most dramatic discovery was a section of DNA which had remained stable, with only two changes, in the line from the chicken down to the last ancestor we share with the apes. A period of 300 million years. Since then (six million years) this section of DNA in the hominid line has undergone 18 changes. It is known as Human Accelerated Region 1 (HAR1). The rate of acceleration may seem small to us but in relative terms it is immense.

Ironically, HAR1 consists of what was once known as “junk DNA”, but it is now understood that some of this plays an important part in modifying the behaviour of genes, which, in turn, relate to other genes. As a result, a relatively small change here can bring about very large changes elsewhere. In this case it relates directly to the cerebral cortex - the outside crinkly part of the brain - which processes our higher and complex brain activity. Incidentally, more than half the genes near to other HARs are concerned with brain function.

The size of the human brain, which generally correlates with cognitive ability, has increased by more than three times since the split from our common ancestor. Brain size is apparently controlled by just four genes. If they had expressed themselves differently then childbirth (also made difficult by our conversion to bipedalism) would have been a very straightforward matter. But then the mothers giving birth and the babies emerging would have been a very different matter too.

There are several other HARs identified, and they are ranked according to the number of differences which have occurred in hominids. HAR2, for example, controls the foetal development of the wrist and thumb - significant since the flexible use of our hands has been important to human development from the construction of tools to the mastery of playing a piano concerto.

The ability to digest starch varies between humans, according to the number of copies of a particular DNA sequence. These appear to have multiplied at the time when the use of fire for cooking and the (much later) development of agriculture provided diets containing quantities of starch.

The ability to control fire appears to have been crucial. Hominids are unique in being able to control and use it. The oldest known hearth dates from about 800,000 years ago, pre-dating homo sapiens by some 600,000 years. It has been argued that the ability to provide light through fire changed the action of hormones pushing us along the line to modern man.

But fire has another important use. Apart from providing warmth and protection from predators, it enabled our forebears to cook meat, allowing us to digest it more easily, and to derive greater nutrition from it. Such advantages would have changed hunting patterns - allowing more time for other pursuits, and increased survival capacity. And this would probably have been accompanied by adaptations in the alimentary system to maximise the advantage. Much closer to our own time, around 9,000 years ago, we developed a version of a gene which enabled human adults to digest lactose, thus enabling us to benefit from milk products derived from herded animals. This occurred in European and African populations, but not in Asian and Latin American populations. These last groups, where they still carry an ancient primate version of the lactose gene, remain intolerant.

Unsurprisingly, changes in the hominid immune system have been many, since the efficiency of the system has a direct bearing on survival. Viruses, which play an important part in the evolutionary process, abound. Retroviruses, which can insert their genetic material into our genomes, are insidious. Fortunately many which can be identified have lost their potency, but others still lurk. Animal immune systems have evolved to deal with different circumstances. A major example here is the Aids virus against which we, unlike non-human primates, are far from immune. However, the characteristics of this difference may eventually show us how to provide human immunity.

The action of viruses reminds us that the development and spread of variants in the human genome are by no means always the result of the classic random mutation which Darwin described. We might add to the list genetic drift, which results from the natural variability occurring through the sexual reproduction (as in non-identical siblings), and which may give survival advantage resulting from certain characteristics. Much variation is also thought to occur, not simply through selection, but through the location, movement and interbreeding of ancient populations.

As they peer through the door, evolutionists naturally argue about aspects of what lies ahead. But at least they are agreed on one thing: we only know a tiny fraction of what there is to learn. The exploration of the passage which invites us will be exciting indeed.

So come and comment. We need your thoughts. Contributions from those with specialised knowledge would be valuable, as indeed would be queries about any faith questions which you think could arise.

Bio-ethics and Catholic Herald columns | Comments (25)

The unknown unknowns

Quentin de la Bedoyere on 18 Jun 2009

We’ve all been working hard at serious subjects on Secondsight, so I thought we might have a little relaxation by way of a quiz – which has nothing in particular to do with faith, science or theology. Test yourself and then go to the page which records my answers – with which I am happy for you to disagree.

1 What is wrong with gilding the lily?

2 Is permitting hands-free mobile telephoning for drivers good sense?

3 Women are just as good at maths as men?

4 Archaeopteryx is a missing link between dinosaurs and birds?

5 In the American War of Independence on which hill did the first pitched battle take place?

6 Who won?

7 Who coined the phrase “Let them eat cake”?

8 When was Magna Carta signed?

9 Does the name Lucifer appear in the Bible?

10 Ye Old Tea Shoppe is a good shot at Old English?

11 Electricity flows from negative to positive?

12 In which species are the males pregnant with young?

13 Who invented the first carbon-filament light bulb?

14 Who said “A portrait is a picture in which there is something wrong with the mouth.”?

15 “Elementary, my dear Watson” occurs in which Sherlock Holmes story?

Go to ANSWERS

Quentin queries | Comments (2)

Communities that communicate

Quentin de la Bedoyere on 11 Jun 2009

At his inaugural Mass Archbishop Nichols spoke of faith building a community in which superficial differences are trumped by our unity in Christ. Certainly true, but I am always suspicious of the word “community” because it is easily said, and not so easily done. Does the Church act as a community? That is the test which turns an aspiration into a reality.

Some years ago we used to talk of two different models of the Church. One was a triangle with the pope at the apex, and descending through the ranks to the bottom line of the laity; the other was a circle, with the Pope at the centre and the members who, while offering different services and functions, made up the body centred on Christ. The triangle of course indicates not community but hierarchy; the circle is structured as community and capable of being one. The metaphor is simplistic but in a broad way it contrasts two fundamentally different views of the Church.

Let me take you back to the Clergy Review of July 1964 in which the late Professor Donald Nicholl, a great and holy man, used a revealing secular example. He reported on a study which a distinguished sociologist had carried out on hospitals. Professor Revans had been asked to find out why certain hospitals had a particularly poor record in retaining junior nursing staff. Closer investigation revealed that a similar high turnover was present at all levels, up to the most senior.

As a good scientist, Revans took a comparison group of hospitals which had low turnover of staff at all levels, and he examined a range of hypotheses which might throw up essential differences. The contrast turned out to be the quality of communication.

The poor hospitals were of course communicating, but the direction of communication was typically downwards. Each level treated the level below as idiots, and the final level of idiocy was the patients at the bottom of the heap. Virtually no communication travelled upwards, and, interestingly, there was very little lateral communication - that is, the different professional functions chose to insulate themselves from each other.

The good hospitals had an easy flow of communication upwards and downwards, and the professional groups worked comfortably together to maximise efficiency. In only one respect did the good hospitals have a higher turnover: the patients had shorter stays because they got better more quickly. It was as if the poor hospitals existed to maintain themselves, with the patients as no more than an unavoidable nuisance, while the good hospitals worked together, and with the patients, in the shared objective of healing.

In case you should think that 1964 is out of date, a study of 34 public hospitals in the United States, published in February 2009, showed uncannily similar results.

Communication, however, is not simply a matter of expressing views; it necessarily involves those views being carefully listened to (though not necessarily agreed with) and the appropriate dialogue and action being promptly taken. (The capacity to listen to subordinates is one of the major factors, identified in several studies, in effective leaders.) You only need, as a proxy, to look at the letters page in this newspaper (which has a long tradition of free lay comment) to read a range of, often, radical communication. But is anyone listening?

I hear tales of marvellous parish priests who lead their laity in the full work of the local Church. But I also hear of parish priests who are still stuck in the Middle Ages, who resent any lay “interference”, and simply ignore pertinent communication. No doubt many priests find a similar variety of reaction from their respective bishops. And the Vatican can often appear to be the nearest thing to a black hole this side of astronomy. Indeed, a group of visiting American canonists found that there was very little lateral communication within the Curia. One remarked: “There is more communication at my university than there is at this international headquarters.”

Do you think that the abuses which have taken place in Ireland (and elsewhere) would have occurred in a communicating Church? Do you think that the widespread sexual abuse by clergy of nuns (mainly but not exclusively in the Third World) would have occurred in a communicating Church? Do you think that the rejection of the Faith by so many of our children and grandchildren, and the dramatic fall in adult membership, Catholic marriages and vocations would have taken place in a communicating Church?

It was understandable that the Church closed ranks at the time of the Reformation, pickling itself in aspic. And notwithstanding Vatican II (which has brought about improvements continually contended by the old guard) it remains largely and institutionally pickled. Too many people have too much to lose by way of power and accountability to release the sheet anchor of comfortable security their personalities require. In this most fundamental characteristic of community, the concept remains no more than a pious platitude.

Who will change it? Both Professor Revans and the American study I have quoted are clear that the change must come from the top if it is to be thorough and effective. But we could at least make a start nearer home. Our new Archbishop of Westminster has the intelligence to grasp the situation, and the character to bring about change. He believes in community; now he has the opportunity - and it will be a long hard road down which he has to lead us - to turn his belief from aspiration into fact.

Which model of the Church do you prefer: triangle or circle? – and why. Do you think there is a clerical caste which hides itself behind its authority? Would a “communicating” Church lead to slackness in doctrine or even a loss of unity? Tell us about your good and bad experiences of communication in the Church.

If you want to read a pretty direct book on the question try “The Reform of the Papacy” by Archbishop Quinn, who was formerly president of the US Conference of Catholic Bishops. Amazon uk has cheap second hand copies. Best to use a UK shipper

Catholic Herald columns and Church and Society | Comments (5)

Decision by emotion?

Quentin de la Bedoyere on 04 Jun 2009

Just how much of our moral stance is influenced by emotional reaction? A study has recently been published in which elderly but mentally fit people were asked to consider what sort of care they would choose if they were to be severely reduced by dementia.

All subjects were informed about the disabilities to be expected in severe dementia, but half were also shown a brief film which actually recorded a person with severe dementia, and so showing the limitations it caused. This group was significantly more likely to choose only “comfort care”. I take “comfort care” to mean allowing the patient to die by withdrawing his or her means of survival.

I am not addressing here the morality of “comfort care” but the engagement of the emotions by showing the film.  I compare this with the films of scans showing babies in the womb – who are recognisably babies, and behaving in a recognisably human way. You will recall that the pro-abortion lobby (I dislike the term pro-choice because only the mother has a choice) complaining about the use of such films since they might unduly influence or distress the mother. Or, as others would put it, make them face up to the reality of their options.

It seems to me that dementia films and unborn baby films are on a par – either both right or both wrong. I wonder whether you agree. And I wonder how much emotional involvement plays its part in our decisions. For example, leaving aside the justice of the cause, is a suicide bomber killing civilians more blameworthy than a Flying Fortress crew blanket bombing Hamburg?

(If you would like to read a somewhat fuller account of the dementia experiment you can do so here. You may also be moved, as I was, by a short video interview with a mother who decided to carry her grossly disabled baby to term. Find it here.)

Moral judgment and Quentin queries | Comments (8)

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