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Archive for January, 2009

Lies, damned lies…

Quentin de la Bedoyere on 29 Jan 2009

“I am not going to this festival, for my time has not yet fully come….But after his brothers had gone to the festival, then he also went, not in public but as it were in secret.” John VII 8 - 10

I find this passage strange because, taken literally, Jesus appears to have told a lie. One authoritative apologist interpreted this as mental reservation: Jesus was not going up in the way which his friends expected. He just failed to add this rider. Of course we can’t read too much into a single passage in the fragmentary Gospel account but it does bring us up against an interesting question.

In the 1994 edition of the Catechism a lie is described as ‘to speak or act against the truth in order to lead into error someone who has the right to know the truth.’ Here the criterion is one of justice. But this was revised (by Cardinal Ratzinger, as it happens) in the 1997 edition to “to speak or act against the truth in order to lead someone into error.’ The remedy offered in hard cases is either silence or ‘discreet language’. The latter presumably refers to mental reservation of various kinds. (Section 2475 et seq.)

The second reading is undoubtedly the traditional one, based on a natural law understanding that telling a lie is to abuse the faculty for speech which was given to us for telling the truth. Mental reservation allows one to deceive in certain extreme cases, but one must not actually tell a lie. Loquatio contra mentem was how the theologians put it. Readers of Newman’s Apologia pro vita sua will know what a fuss that caused.

What do you think? Do you believe that all lies are wrong, irrespective of circumstances? Is there any point on the scale, from social lying to telling a Nazi contingent that there are no Jews in the house, at which you would accept a direct lie? Or would you follow the justice interpretation – holding that, although truth is in general owed to our neighbour, there are circumstances when a direct lie would be justifiable? What examples would you give?

Moral judgment and Quentin queries | Comments (6)

To practise what we preach

Quentin de la Bedoyere on 22 Jan 2009

Subsidiarity is a dull word for a very important principle. In brief it means that decisions within organisations should be taken at the lowest possible level. Higher authority should only apply when, in a particular set of circumstances, it is necessary for the good of all. This principle of autonomy is firmly rooted in the Church’s social teaching: it appears in Quadragesimo Anno (Pius XI) and in Mater et Magistra (John XXIII). And, as you would expect, it applies not just in the secular world but also to the Church itself, as Pius XII emphasised in 1946.

Interestingly, over the last 50 years the principle has proved itself in secular organisations again and again. In the early part of the last century it was taken for granted that efficient organisations needed comprehensive set procedures which the worker had to follow. It was clear that relying on the decisions of responsible authority, who surely knew best, was the way to go. And this was well suited to operations in which the function of the worker was to be no more than a human machine.

But times changed. As more and more mechanical operations could be carried out automatically, so the worker could potentially take more responsibility for his own decisions. Many managements were fearful about this. Their mindset told them that workers only responded to sticks or carrots, and that to allow them autonomy would lead to abuse and chaos.

But it turned out that the opposite was true. The more autonomous the worker the more motivated he became, and the more he brought his intelligence to bear on doing a good job. Organisations which genuinely practised subsidiarity were more successful. But it had to be genuine; in too many cases businesses made changes, usually referred to as “empowerment”, which turned out to be cosmetic internal public relations. But workers were not fooled, they recognised responsibility only when they were allowed to exercise it meaningfully.

Of course it isn’t quite as simple as that. Every organisation has to have its key objectives and its essential principle of operation. And there will always be some necessary regulations which have to be observed. These will vary according to the nature of the business. There can be no comprehensive formula. But there is a radical difference between managements who believe that as much as possible should be controlled with the minimum left to the autonomy of the worker, and the managements who believe in maximising the autonomy of the worker and reducing the control of management to its smallest essential level. The latter is subsidiarity expressed in practical terms.

But we have an example of the failure of subsidiarity immediately available to us. Over the last 10 years over 3,600 new criminal offences have been created, stretching our system to bursting capacity. It is as if Government believes that we can only have a good society if it is controlled in minute detail. And as different regulations fail to achieve their objectives (or are abused by petty bureaucracy) further corrective measures have to be introduced. If we need proof that over-management creates a society with no sense of personal responsibility we only have to pick up a daily newspaper.

I am not suggesting ill-will. Government sincerely believes that it is creating a better society through regulatory minutiae backed up by more intrusive surveillance. Like the good-hearted Victorian employer it believes that it knows best and fears that without its kindly eye disaster will ensue. Basically it is afraid to trust, because inevitably there will be occasions when trust is abused. But unfortunately the effect of taking responsibility away from individuals is far more damaging than the occasional abuse that will occur. Pius XI, John XXIII and Pius XII had it right after all.

But, ironically, the Church herself, also with good will, is in practice not very good at subsidiarity. I am not of course suggesting that we should be a democracy but it is possible to ensure the truths of basic doctrine and the essentials of good order while maximising the autonomy of the lower echelons. If secular, commercial organisations can do this to their great benefit, why not the Church?

A few examples demonstrate areas which ought to be examined. Despite Vatican II emphasising that the bishops hold their authority by consecrated right and not as delegates of the papacy, is this in fact what happens? Why are new bishops chosen by the Pope and not by the local community concerned? Why was the translation of the liturgy wrested from the ICEL commission, and taken directly under the Curia’s wing? Kitchen cabinets and bureaucracy fight subsidiarity in any kind of organisation – political, commercial or ecclesiastical; it leeches their power. Little wonder that the reform of the Curia, called for by Vatican II, has made little progress over 40 years.

All of us know thriving parishes in which much work, from the administrative to the pastoral, has been delegated by the parish priest, and the dead parishes in which the invitation to the laity is both nominal and grudging.

True subsidiarity operating in the Church is no danger to unity or truth. The pope would always retain the right to refuse an episcopal appointment, but this should be very rare – and taken as a severe criticism of the local choice. The parish priest would not lose his ultimate responsibilities, but his work would ordinarily be done through good leadership rather than with a heavy hand. The result would be a lively, growing and loyal Church in which love and not law would predominate.

But you may disagree, or perhaps you can think of other examples in which the Church’s own principle of subsidiarity is abused. Or upheld. I look forward to your comments.

Catholic Herald columns and Church and Society and Moral judgment | Comments (5)

Professor Dawkins probably exists

Quentin de la Bedoyere on 15 Jan 2009

THERE IS PROBABLY NO GOD.
NOW STOP WORRYING AND ENJOY LIFE.
This encouraging message is now appearing on London buses, and will be extended to a further 600 buses in the provinces. The secular humanist campaign strongly supported by Professor Dawkins and the British Humanist Association is reported as having raised £140,000 since October.

It is a strange message, given that secular humanists vigorously base their case on the purity of empirically established truth. Many recent studies have shown that actively religious people tend to be happier, to worry less and to have a longer life expectancy than the average.

Does the condition known as “Catholic guilt” still exist? It used to be spoken about much but, in my experience guilt, (by which I mean a general disposition rather than facing up to our actual failings) seems be a pretty widespread condition of humanity. I hardly ever hear the phrase “Catholic guilt” used nowadays. Am I right? Is that a good thing or a bad thing?

(Just a little reminder of those happy times.

From Catholic Moral Theology in the United States: A History, by Charles E. Curran, 2008 – with some elision, for brevity.

“ In everyday Catholic teaching, e.g., Fr Gerald Kelly SJ, Modern Youth and Chastity,1941, all sins of impurity, even internal sins of consenting to slight sexual arousal, are always mortal sins.”

No wonder we crossed roads carefully in those days.)

Church and Society and Moral judgment | Comments (19)

Telling right from wrong – 2

Quentin de la Bedoyere on 08 Jan 2009

In my column of October 24 I listed the major ways in which we might distinguish right from wrong. The first was deontology, or the law-based approach, which the column outlined. The second was a judgment of the consequences of our action, and the third, virtue ethics, which focuses not on the action but on the quality of the actor. On this occasion I want to look at judgment by consequence – which is traditionally known as utilitarianism.

Most of our everyday moral decisions involve judgments about consequences. The school we choose for our children or how much overtime we decide to do will take them into account. We might be considering our willingness to donate a kidney or whether to place an aged relative in a home, and this would require us, among other issues, to consider the consequences. But utilitarianism must be distinguished from this because it is presented as a formal principle which holds that consequence alone is the criterion of moral judgment.

Francis Hutcheson first enunciated this in 1720 as “that action is best which procures the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers”. We associate its more formal development with the philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. And, at first sight, it sounds a most attractive and Christian principle.
At second sight we begin to ask some questions. Is happiness necessarily a comprehensive moral criterion when we might decide that self-sacrifice, or Mother Teresa’s dark night of the soul, more worthy? What is meant by the “greatest numbers”? Does this include the whole population of the world, or should it include the future population, and, indeed, sentient non-humans? No distinction between persons is made, so our obligation to our family is no greater than to remote strangers. How would it be possible to make such an all-embracing and far-sighted judgment with any hope of success?

Perhaps the greatest difficulty with the principle is that it can require us to do something which we believe, on other grounds, to be wrong. Suppose that granny has become crotchety and discontented in her old age. She needs the constant care of her family who must provide this at great difficulty to themselves. One might judge that greater happiness for the greatest number of people, including granny herself, would be achieved by wafting her as quickly as possible to her grave.

Such difficulties are of course recognised by utilitarians themselves. The result has been the development of various schools. Schools inevitably proliferate when moralists who are using an unsound foundational principle strive to maintain it while retaining common sense. In fact almost any version of the theory (or nuance of any version) is likely to be a matter of dispute among philosophers.

The attempt to judge the balance of good and bad consequences, which Bentham called the “felicific calculation”, is too complex to be of practical use. And so the most that many expect is that one should simply do one’s best in any specific decision. In one variation, the preferences of those reasonably touched by the decision are substituted for happiness of the greatest number. In another, a distinction is made between the higher pleasures such as friendship or poetry, and the lower pleasures of sexuality or trivial pursuits – even though the individual’s actual experience of pleasure may be the same or greater.

A distinction is made between “act” utiltarianism, and “agent-relative” utilitarianism. In the first, an act is regarded as wrong if the outcome happens to be bad, irrespective of the intentions of the agent. In the second, it is the prudent intention of the agent which counts.

There is also an indirect form, known as “rule” utilitarianism. This argues that human experience has taught us that the observation of certain principles is necessary for human happiness or welfare, as a whole – and should therefore be followed. This form is necessarily agent-relative since no rule will invariably lead to good consequences. The rules are claimed to conform to our moral intuitions and, unsurprisingly, often resemble deontology – although the supporting philosophy is different. But “act” utilitarians would see all this as a slack betrayal of the overarching principle.

If you find this a mite confusing you are not alone. Indeed, the multiplicity of versions in itself constitutes a practical reason for questioning the approach. But we need to remind ourselves of our essential bearings.

The late Elizabeth Anscombe was first to use the term “consequentialism” to cover the family of approaches which bases the moral judgment of an act in terms of consequences rather than, as deontology does, in terms of the moral character of the act. Consequences are, as I suggested in my introduction, an important tool in our moral evaluation of acts which are not intrinsically wrong. But they do so, not as criteria for morality in themselves, but in light of the law of the Gospel which requires us to love our neighbour as ourselves. Indeed Anscombe’s general objection to modern secular moral philosophy is that it debates about laws and obligatory principles while denying the need for a lawgiver. Our foundation is, I am glad to say, rather more secure.

Consequentialism has teeth once we take it from the philosopher’s study and put it into practice. Many issues – individual rights versus community security, abortion, assisted dying, destruction or experimentation with embryos – are all debated in terms of consequences. Indeed even Catholic arguments may need to be presented as a matter of consequences in order to gain a hearing in the public forum. And it is certainly true that the consequences of behaving in conformity with our created natures will, at least in the long term, result in the best outcome.

My blog, www.secondsightblog.com, is ready for your comments and queries.

Catholic Herald columns and Moral judgment and Philosophy | Comments (7)

To the Gentiles, a folly

Quentin de la Bedoyere on 01 Jan 2009

So here we are at the New Year, and still celebrating Christmas right up to the Epiphany. Is that an intelligent thing to do?

Apparently not. At least according to retired Danish professor of psychology, Helmuth Nyborg. This is what he has to say:

“First, intelligent people have a brain based biological capacity for solving complex problems, and for acting rationally when confronted with fundamental questions about existence, human nature, underlying causes, or the “slings and arrows of outrageous fortune”. Second, unintelligent people lack this protection and are therefore unfairly ordained to live in a pre-rational world based on poorly validated evidence and little accumulated insight. They accordingly often find themselves in cognitively, emotionally, or morally challenging situations and have to use plan B, that is, to call upon easily comprehensible religious authoritative guidance and to submit more or less uncritically to culturally given stereotyped rituals. Frustration with their life may also make them seek redemption or faith in an after life.”

So now you know.

On the other hand you might like to take a look at Reflections on the The God Delusion. It’s as good a succinct commentary on Professor Dawkins as any I have read. You may feel that Professor Nyborg has missed a trick somewhere.

Comments invited

Church and Society and Philosophy | Comments (9)

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